Scientists generally base scientific hypotheses on previous observations that cannot satisfactorily be explained with the available scientific theories. observation - question - hypotheses - predictions - results of investigation - conclusions Which are true of a hypothesis? Average people will harm others if told to do so by an authority figure. C. An increase in family income leads to an increase in the percentage of income spent on housing. Which of the following statements best distinguishes hypotheses from theories in science? General explanationsNewtonian celestial mechanics, for exampleare intended to apply broadly; Newtons theories explain the motion of all heavenly bodies at all times. It is easy to invent a convenient explanation for data you already have, but then to disregard failure to fully satisfy the total evidence condition. The husband said he put the pipe somewhere, and the plumber had no way of knowing where; how often is someone going to be able to sneak in and find something like that without being caught? d. a and b. e. a and c. b. in the quest of some nonaggressive goal. But in an Oregon State University study that was replicated several times, wild frog eggs were placed in 72 cages, some with filters that let all sunlight inside except UV radiation. Its like coming back from the dead. . Observable outcome: An image looking like the outline of the Virgin Mary was seen on the wall of a house. The more surprising the outcome would be, the lower the prior probability and the stronger the logic of the argument. If an explanation does already exist, then the outcome has a high prior probability and the argument is logically weak. , For years, scientifically trained observers dismissed voodoo death as primitive superstition. A It includes the presumption of WebQuestion: Which of the following is an explanatory hypothesis? The magazine reporting it is reliable, and there is no reason to distrust it in this case. a. setting up specific guidelines distinguishing assertive play from inappropriate aggressive play An increase in family income leads to an increase in the percentage of income spent on housing. When we compare frequencies we see that the prior probability of each portion of the plumber explanation is quite low; and the conjunction of all portions (recall Chapter 10this requires that the probabilities of all the parts be multiplied) is far, far lower. In an experiment, the group of subjects exposed to a particular treatment; also known as the treatment group. Far worse than the plumber explanation from Dear Abby, it requires a long list of independently improbable things all to be truealternative ways, for example of accounting for the following: the vast documentation rescued from the German Archives; the elaborate sealed rooms set up for funneling the prisoners to their deaths; the movement of enormous quantities of asphyxiating Xyklon B gas to the death camps; the photographs of mounds of bodies; the vast body of eyewitness testimony by both victims and their murderers; and the otherwise mysterious disappearance from history of millions of Jews. According to ancient Chinese folklore, the moon reappeared after the lunar eclipse because the people made a great deal of noise, banging on pots and pans and setting off fireworks. But the theory of plate tectonics eventually provided a conceptual framework for continental drift, and the explanation no longer has an unacceptably low prior probability. Explanatory arguments are probably the most fundamental and frequently used of all arguments, both in science and in everyday life. You might be impressed until you learn that I asked all 30 students in my class to stand up and try to toss heads. c. Express thoughts but not feelings. How often do plumbers leave water spraying everywhere rather than turning it offif not at the faucet, then at the main? The Total Evidence Condition for Explanatory Arguments. A team of researchers recently found no differences that would account for the beak variations. Making any judgment about the explanation. a. when participants are losing Pity, the evidence went up in smoke. Devise a testable prediction. I do take a lot of vitamin C over the winter and get only one or two colds, though I usually get three or four. WebExploratory research: Definition. For the sake of illustration, I will slightly idealize the intermediate readings: say, it was 28.2 inches at 1,800 feet, then one inch lower at each of the next thousand-foot intervals. Circles that had only later begun to appear elsewhere, they suggested, were created by copycats. d. Outline necessary changes. d. revised frustration-aggression theory Explanatory Impotence Explanatory impotence is the opposite of explanatory power. Nearly half the party died before an April rescue, the survivors cannibalizing the dead. WebTranscribed image text: www.bbt.com Our Time.com Cesearch Foundations, Process, and Ethics Savod Which of the following is an explanatory hypothesis? B. He argued that, by super-cooling the stomach, acid production was reduced and the ulcer relieved. Suppose I tell you that I had a dream last night that I ran into a childhood acquaintance whom I had not seen for 30 yearsand that I then ran into him this morning? The notes were placed about three-quarters of the way through each book, hard against the spine so that they could not be shaken out. For, as researchers have shown, we have a natural tendencytermed a confirmation biasto look for outcomes that support our preferred explanation rather than those that might falsify the alternativesto look, for example, for worshippers who escaped rather than thinking also about those who drowned. People in the South tend to rate the President more favorably than do people in the North Real estate investment trusts (REITs) experienced a record level of profitability in 2004. Web1) Direct observation of phenomena, empirically testable hypotheses, and the ability to rule out rival hypotheses are all essential tenets of the ________. A later investigation showed that there was indeed a correlation between TM and warmer weather, but an even stronger correlation between TM and the preceding afternoons forecast of warmer weather for the next day. Rather, it is to say that an argument for magic must meet high standards, and this one does not yet do so. WebIntrospection refers to a process by which someone examines ________ as objectively as possible. No more mice. Then, recalling our discussion of evaluating the truth of bothand sentences in Chapter 10, the prior probability that it was both of them can be roughly understood as .10 times .10, or .01. . This supports which theory of aggression? T. Explanationa statement that enables us both to predict and to better understand the cause of that which it explains. B. Which of the following statements is true of an explanatory It isnt possible to say with precision how improbable the outcome must be to count as sufficiently improbable. OK, so shes not admitting to anything, but the next day when I went to get the pipe, it wasnt where I had put it! The first premise states that the theory, or the explanation, really does enable you to predict the facts, or the observable outcome. Immediately penalize spectators for aggressive acts. D. It excludes the presumption of causation. Its a favorite of macabre schoolchildren. In some explanatory arguments, the explanatory theory is first invented, then the observable outcome is predicted and looked for. Youll seethe audience will applaud at the end. Explanation: the meteorite came from Mars. Develop strict alcohol control policies. When established scientists reject offbeat theories, defenders of such views love to cite these cases. Suppose I say to you, If he is from Chicago, then he is from Illinoisand he is indeed from Illinois, so he must be from Chicago. You cant be absolutely sure without some wider context, but it normally wouldnt make sense for me to explain someones residency in Illinois by pointing to his residence in Chicago. In short, coincidence has not been ruled out, so we cannot judge this to be a logically strong argument. This is an important source of the comet arguments logical strength. But Grayson believes its unlikely such factors fully explain the statistics. Which of the following describes this pill? ], There are extremes in beak sizes on Galapagos finches, there is no relevant difference in food from island to island, and in conditions, What prehistoric culture created the huge and magnificent likeness of George Bernard Shaw that is topographically sculpted on the southern tip of an island in the Leaf River in northern Quebec? In this statement Stern clearly indicated that _________ morality would not be accepted or tolerated. What is the prior probability of this alternative? Explanatory/ Causal /Bivariate Hypothesis. Select the correctly ordered list of psychological theorists, with the earliest theorist listed first. This represents the major premise of which theory? a. fans become less aggressive after watching a sporting event A hypothesis is a tentative explanation . Ideally, the explanation contains a cohesive and cogent understanding of the origins of the problems, the conditions that perpetuate them, the obstacles interfering with their solution, and the resources available to address them. WebThe explanatory hypothesis is the heart of the case formulation. What is the MOST IMPORTANT flaw in this investigation? The arguer must have imagination to devise an explanation that is something more than a generalization of the experienced facts; and the evaluator must have imagination to think up viable alternative explanations for the sake of comparison. Step 3. But this does not make the special-powers explanation more probable than the deception explanation; it simply enlarges the deception. This result can be explained by the fact that because the teachers expected them to do well, their perceptions of each students ability rose and those childrens own self-image was enhanced. David Lewis and James Greene, Thinking Better. d. Frustration produces physical but not psychological aggression. observation - question - hypotheses - predictions - results of investigation - conclusions Which are true of a hypothesis? Companies MOST LIKELY do this to: Demonstrate that the scientists conducting the trial are not biased in concluding that the drug is effective. 2. Consider the alternative that someone has accidentally dialed a wrong number, only to hang up when hearing an unfamiliar voice on the other end. Because the explanation does no work in making the outcome probable, it should get none of the credit when the outcome is observed. Newtons account of celestial mechanics is correct and applies to the motion of comets. It makes no statement with respect to causation. Young women purchase fewer. The problem in all of these cases is that the explanation does no work. Is the frequently observed, poorly understood, phenomenon that people tend to respond favorably to any treatment. b. or she may have been secretly using a two-headed coin. General explanations are typical of science, though are not restricted to it. e. as a linear function, The general aggression model proposes that the probability of aggression increases because of Newtons theories, for example, while applied here to Halleys comet, actually cover the motion of all objects at all times. I know of some people with cancer who smoke. b. in the quest of some nonaggressive goal. Where in the tropics could an English army doctor have seen much hardship and got his arm wounded? But if Halley was right about Newtons views, there would be detectable regularitiescertain comets would be found to follow fixed elliptical orbits around the sun. But the first one, Torricellis, has a higher prior probability because it is simpler, due to its prediction of a smoother curve. Which of the following statements best distinguishes hypotheses from theories in science? In a research study, any condition applied to subjectsthose in the treatment groupthat is not applied to subjects in a control group. How does Abbys conclusion fare in the face of this alternative explanation? Categorize types of drugs used to treat psychological disorders. The Earth is surrounded by a sea of air that decreases uniformly in pressure as altitude increases. A medical student has been reading intensively about various diseases of the nervous system. The null hypothesis was a better fit to your data. MIU had practiced TM on eight nonconsecutive days, without a miss, when the preceding days forecast predicted mild or continuing mild weather. Epistemic probability, as explained in Chapter 9, refers to the probability of the statements truth given all relevant available evidence. For instance, of 15 Donner Party members who attempted to snowshoe out in late December, all five women survived while eight of the ten men died. D. It excludes the presumption of causation. All 24 of his patients who received the treatment were healed. c. students with good leadership and communication skills In ancient Greece, when there was a difficult decision to be made, the wealthy Greeks would sometimes travel to Delphi and consult the oracle therean oracle who, it was believed, had special powers to foresee the future. In the study of personality, the ________ model includes dimensions of conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness, and extroversion. . Like their close cousins, inductive generalizations, explanatory arguments aim to expand our knowledge. Said author Delgado, We have been conned. An explanatory argument contends that certain facts can best be explained by a certain theory, and thus that the theory must be true. c. Hypotheses usually are relatively narrow in scope; theories have broad explanatory power. Nevertheless, we clarify and evaluate the argument just like the comet argument. c. aggressive play is discouraged by coaches and parents Rabinoff claimed that this was evidence for a causeeffect relationship between TM and the weather. What distinction (if any) is there between a scientific theory and a conceptual one that might lead you to disagree with this argument? His left arm has been injured. When people insist that they have no repressed memories, then, Freud considers this to be evidence for the presence of resistance, which is itself evidence for the existence of repression. I was being more careful about my health because I was engaged in the experiment. Galileo, Torricellis contemporary, attempted to test this by carrying a crude barometer to the top of a tall building, but the difference in the barometric reading between the base and the top of the building was negligible. - Tend to be broad. Which of the following is an explanatory hypothesis? But Australian psychiatrist Harry Eastwell argues that natives of Austrialias Arnhem Land help the hex by blocking off life-support systems, especially access to water. Franklin D. Trumpy, Skeptical Inquirer (Concern yourself with the inference made by Dr. A statement that enables us both to predict and to better understand the cause of that which it explains. Structure an explanatory argument, when it would be loyal to do so, as follows: the first premise states that if the explanation is correct, then a specified outcome of it will be observable; the second premise states that the outcome has been observed; and the conclusion states that the explanation is thus correct. 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